Managing Urban Growth – an Overview of the Literature

Stefan Siedentop; Stephan Schmidt; Alistair Dunlop

doi:10.14512/rur.1653

Authors

Stefan Siedentop
Stephan Schmidt
Alistair Dunlop

DOI:

https://doi.org/10.14512/rur.1653

Keywords:

Urban growth management, regional planning, land use planning, governance , literature review

Abstract

Today, most countries in the global north have developed and implemented urban growth management (UGM) programs and policies aimed at mitigating the impacts and negative externalities of urban sprawl and achieving a more compact urban form. However, there is substantial disagreement about their effectiveness and effects of these programs. In this paper, we systematically review the extensive literature on growth management to better understand a) the current state of the practice of UGM, and b) the determinants of successful UGM implementation. Compared to previously available literature syntheses, which focus heavily on North American research, we also take into account studies based in Europe and some Asian and Oceanic countries. From this literature, we identify several key factors to successful growth management implementation: a multi-level governance approach, intersectoral policy coordination, a regionally adapted mix of policy instruments, balancing development needs with preservation goals, and the ability to develop positive narratives around growth management.

Downloads

Download data is not yet available.

References

Abbott, C.; Margheim, J. (2008): Imagining Portland’s Urban Growth Boundary: Planning Regulation as Cultural Icon. In: Journal of the American Planning Association 74, 2, 196–208. https://doi.org/10.1080/01944360801944997

Addison, C.; Zhang, S.; Coomes, B. (2013): Smart growth and housing affordability: A review of regulatory mechanisms and planning practices. In: Journal of Planning Literature 28, 3, 215–257. https://doi.org/10.1177/0885412212471563

Ahlfeldt, G.; Pietrostefani, E.; Schumann, A.; Matsumoto, T. (2018): Demystifying compact urban growth: Evidence from 300 studies from across the world. Paris. = OECD regional Development Working Papers 2018/03.

Angel, S.; Parent, J.; Civco, D.L.; Blei, A.M. (2011): Making room for a planet of cities. Cambridge.

Anthony, J. (2004): Do state growth management regulations reduce sprawl? In: Urban Affairs Review 39, 3, 376–397. https://doi.org/10.1177/1078087403257798

Anthony, J. (2017): Housing price effects of growth regulations: a concise taxonomy. In: International Journal of Housing Policy 17, 4, 569–590. https://doi.org/10.1080/14616718.2016.1215963

Bae, C.-H. C. (1998): Korea’s greenbelts: impacts and options for change. In: Pacific Rim Law and Policy Journal 7, 3, 479–502.

Bae, C.-H. C.; Jun, M.-J. (2003): Counterfactual planning: what if there had been no greenbelt in Seoul? In: Journal of Planning Education and Research 22, 4, 374–383. https://doi.org/10.1177/0739456X03022004004

Bengston, D.N.; Fletcher, J.O.; Nelson, K.C. (2004): Public policies for managing urban growth and protecting open space: policy instruments and lessons learned in the United States. In: Landscape and Urban Planning 69, 2‑3, 271–286. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.landurbplan.2003.08.007

Bengston, D.N.; Youn, Y.C. (2006): Urban containment policies and the protection of natural areas: the case of Seoul’s greenbelt. In: Ecology and Society 11, 1, 3.

Blair, R. (2001): Managing urban growth: can the policy tools approach improve effectiveness? In: Public Works Management and Policy 6, 2, 102–113. https://doi.org/10.1177/1087724X0162004

Blotevogel, H.H. (2018): Geschichte der Raumordnung. In: ARL – Akademie für Raumforschung und Landesplanung (Hrsg.): Handwörterbuch der Stadt- und Raumentwicklung. Hannover, 793-803.

Bollens, S.A. (1992): State growth management: Intergovernmental frameworks and policy objectives. In: Journal of the American Planning Association 58, 4, 454–466. https://doi.org/10.1080/01944369208975829

Boyle, R.; Mohamed, R. (2007): State growth management, smart growth and urban containment: A review of the US and a study of the Heartland. In: Journal of Environmental Planning and Management 50, 5, 677–697. https://doi.org/10.1080/09640560701475337

Bunker, R.; Houston, P. (2003): Prospects for the rural-urban fringe in Australia: Observations from a brief history of the landscapes around Sydney and Adelaide. In: Geographical Research 41, 3, 303–323. https://doi.org/10.1046/j.1467-8470.2003.00236.x

Burchell, R.W.; Mukherji, S. (2003): Conventional development versus managed growth: the costs of sprawl. In: American Journal of Public Health 93, 9, 1534–1540. https://doi.org/10.2105/ajph.93.9.1534

Burge, G.S.; Trosper, T.L.; Nelson, A.C.; Juergensmeyer, J.C.; Nicholas, J.C. (2013): Can development impact fees help mitigate urban sprawl? In: Journal of the American Planning Association 79, 3, 235–248. https://doi.org/10.1080/01944363.2014.901116

Carruthers, J.I. (2002): Evaluating the effectiveness of regulatory growth management programs: An analytic framework. In: Journal of Planning Education and Research 21, 4, 391–405. https://doi.org/10.1177/0739456X0202100404

Carruthers, J.I.; Ulfarsson, G.F. (2003): Urban sprawl and the cost of public services. In: Environment and Planning B – Urban Analytics and City Science 30, 4, 503–522. https://doi.org/10.1068/b12847

Carruthers, J.I.; Wei, H.; Wostenholme, L. (2022): Urban containment as smart growth. In: Knaap, G‑J..; Lewis, R.; Chakraborty, A.; June-Friesen, K. (eds.): Handbook on Smart Growth. Promise, Principles, and Prospects for Planning. Cheltenham, 60–74.

Cervero, R.; Sullivan, C. (2011): Green TODs: marrying transit-oriented development and green urbanism. In: International Journal of Sustainable Development and World Ecology 18, 3, 210–218. https://doi.org/10.1080/13504509.2011.570801

Chapin, T.S. (2012): From growth controls, to comprehensive planning, to smart growth: Planning’s emerging fourth wave. In: Journal of the American Planning Association 78, 1, 5–15. https://doi.org/10.1080/01944363.2011.645273

Cho, C.-J. (2002): The Korean growth-management programs: issues, problems and possible reforms. In: Land Use Policy 19, 1, 13–27. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0264-8377(01)00035‑7

Cladera, J.R.; Burns, M.C. (2000): The liberalization of the land market in Spain: The 1998 reform of urban planning legislation. In: European Planning Studies 8, 5, 547–564. https://doi.org/10.1080/713666428

Colsaet, A.; Laurans, Y.; Levrel, H. (2018): What drives land take and urban land expansion? A systematic review. In: Land Use Policy 79, 339–349. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.landusepol.2018.08.017

Daniels, T. (2001): Smart growth: A new American approach to regional planning. In: Planning Practice and Research 16, 3‑4, 271–279. https://doi.org/10.1080/02697450120107880

Daniels, T.L. (2010): The use of green belts to control sprawl in the United States. In: Planning Practice and Research 25, 2, 255–271. https://doi.org/10.1080/02697451003740288

Davoudi, S.; Crawford, J.; Raynor, R.; Reid, B.; Sykes, O.; Shaw, D. (2018): Policy and practice spatial imaginaries: Tyrannies or transformations? In: Town Planning Review 89, 2, 97–124. https://doi.org/10.3828/tpr.2018.7

Dawkins, C.J.; Nelson, A.C. (2003): State growth management programs and central-city revitalization. In: Journal of the American Planning Association 69, 4, 381–396. https://doi.org/10.1080/01944360308976326

DeGrove, J.M.; Stroud, N.E. (1987): State land planning and regulation: Innovative roles in the 1980s and beyond. In: Land Use Law and Zoning Digest 39, 3, 3–8. https://doi.org/10.1080/00947598.1987.10395077

Dijkstra, L.; Poelman, H.; Rodríguez-Pose, A. (2018): The geography of EU discontent. Luxemburg.

Diller, C.; Eichhorn, S.; Pehlke, D. (2021): Evaluation der Steuerung regionalplanerischer Instrumente zur Steuerung der Siedlungsentwicklung. In: Henn, S.; Zimmermann, T.; Brauschweig, B. (eds.): Stadtregionales Flächenmanagement. Berlin, 1–21. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-662-63295-6_7-1

Downs, A. (2002): Have housing prices risen faster in Portland than elsewhere? In: Housing Policy Debate 13, 1, 7–31. https://doi.org/10.1080/10511482.2002.9521432

Downs, A. (2004) (ed.): Growth Management and Affordable Housing: Do They Conflict? Washington DC.

Eichhorn, S.; Diller, C.; Pehlke, D. (2021): Wirkungen der Regionalplanung bei der Steuerung der Siedlungsentwicklung. In: Henn, S.; Zimmermann, T.; Braunschweig, B. (Hrsg.): Stadtregionales Flächenmanagement. Berlin, 1–30. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-662-63295-6_8-2

Eichhorn, S.; Pehlke, D. (2022): Unintended effects of regional planning in Germany. In: Growth and Change 53, 2, 933–950. https://doi.org/10.1111/grow.12615

Evers, D.; Ben-Zadok, E.; Faludi, A. (2000): The Netherlands and Florida: Two growth management strategies. In: International Planning Studies 5, 1, 7–23. https://doi.org/10.1080/135634700111792

Ewing, R.; Bartholomew, K.; Winkelman, S.; Walters, J.; Chen, D. (2007): Growing cooler. The evidence on urban development and climate change. Washington DC.

Ewing, R.; Lyons, T.; Siddiq, F.; Sabouri, S.; Kiani, F.; Hamidi, S.; Choi, D.-A.; Ameli, H. (2022): Growth management effectiveness: A literature review. In: Journal of Planning Literature 37, 3, 433–451. https://doi.org/10.1177/08854122221077457

European Commission (2021): EU Soil Strategy for 2030. Reaping the benefits of healthy soils for people, food, nature and climate. COM (2021) 699 final. Brussels.

Faludi, A.; van der Valk, A. (1994): Rule and order Dutch planning doctrine in the twentieth century. Dordrecht.

Fertner, C.; Jørgensen, G.; Sick Nielsen, T.A.; Nilsson, K.S.B. (2016): Urban sprawl and growth management – drivers, impacts and responses in selected European and US cities. In: Future Cities and Environment 2, 9, 1–13. https://doi.org/10.1186/s40984-016-0022-2

Filion, P. (2009): The mixed success of nodes as a smart growth planning policy. In: Environment and Planning B – Urban Analytics and City Science 36, 3, 505-521. https://doi.org/10.1068/b33145

Fischel, W.A. (1990): Do growth controls matter? A review of empirical evidence on the effectiveness and efficiency of local government land use regulation. Washington, DC.

Fox, D. (2010): Halting urban sprawl: Smart growth in Vancouver and Seattle. In: Boston College International and Comparative Law Review 33, 1, 43–59.

Frenkel, A. (2004): The potential effect of national growth-management policy on urban sprawl and the depletion of open spaces and farmland. In: Land Use Policy 21, 4, 357–369. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.landusepol.2003.12.001

Frenkel, A.; Orenstein, D.E. (2012): Can urban growth management work in an era of political and economic change? International lessons from Israel. In: Journal of the American Planning Association 78, 1, 16–33. https://doi.org/10.1080/01944363.2011.643533

Friedmann, J.; Bloch, R. (1990): American exceptionalism in regional planning, 1933-2000. In: International Journal of Urban and Regional Research 14, 4, 576–601. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1468-2427.1990.tb00158.x

Gale, D.E. (1992): Eight state-sponsored growth management programs: A comparative analysis. In: Journal of the American Planning Association 58, 4, 425–439. https://doi.org/10.1080/01944369208975827

Gallent, N.; Madeddu, M. (2021): Covid-19 and London’s decentralising housing market – What are the planning implications? In: Planning Practice and Research 36, 5, 567–577. https://doi.org/10.1080/02697459.2021.1964782

Gennaio, M.-P.; Hersperger, A.M.; Bürgi, M. (2009): Containing urban sprawl – Evaluating effectiveness of urban growth boundaries set by the Swiss Land Use Plan. In: Land Use Policy 26, 2, 224–232. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.landusepol.2008.02.010

Gill, S.E.; Handley, J.F.; Ennos, A.R.; Pauleit, S. (2007): Adapting cities for climate change: the role of the green infrastructure. In: Built Environment 33, 1, 115–133.

Glaeser, E.L.; Gyourko, J. (2018): The economic implications of housing supply. In: Journal of Economic Perspectives 32, 1, 3–30. https://doi.org/10.1257/jep.32.1.3

Glasson, J.; Marshall, T. (2007): Regional planning. Abingdon.

Godschalk, D.R. (2000): Smart Growth Efforts around the Nation. In: Popular Government 66, 1, 12–20.

Greiving, S.; Dappen, C.; Schlegelmilch, F.; Selk, A. (2012): Regionalplanerische Instrumente zur Reduzierung der Flächeninanspruchnahme. Bonn. = BMVBS-Online-Publikation 20/2012.

Güneralp, B.; Reba, M.; Hales, B.U.; Wentz, E.A.; Seto, K.C. (2020): Trends in urban land expansion, density, and land transitions from 1970to 2010: a global synthesis. In: Environmental Research Letters 15, 4, 044015, 1–13. https://doi.org/10.1088/1748-9326/ab6669

Hall, P. (2002): Urban and regional planning. New York.

Halleux, J.-M.; Marcinczak, S.; van der Krabben, E. (2012): The adaptive efficiency of land use planning measured by the control of urban sprawl. The cases of the Netherlands, Belgium and Poland. In: Land Use Policy 29, 4, 887–898. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.landusepol.2012.01.008

Han, A.T. (2019): Effects of relaxing the urban growth management policy: Greenbelt policy of Seoul Metropolitan Area, South Korea. In: Journal of Planning Education and Research 39, 3, 300–314. https://doi.org/10.1177/0739456X17739110

Han, A.T.; Daniels, T.L.; Kim, C. (2022): Managing urban growth in the wake of climate change: Revisiting greenbelt policy in the US. In: Land Use Policy 112, 105867. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.landusepol.2021.105867

Han, A.T.; Go, M.H. (2019): Explaining the national variation of land use: A cross-national analysis of greenbelt policy in five countries. In: Land Use Policy 81, 644–656. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.landusepol.2018.11.035

Han, A.T.; Graham, R.; Tsenkova, S. (2020): The inside and outside game of growth management: Tracking sprawl of Canada’s largest metropolitan areas. In: Journal of Planning Education and Research. https://doi.org/10.1177/0739456X20937335

Hare, M. (2001): Exploring growth management roles in Ontario: learning from “who does what” elsewhere. Toronto.

Heinen, D. (2020): Integrating decisions on low-carbon development patterns in metropolitan regions. A cross-country comparative analysis of how the rules-in-use in the planning systems of British Columbia (Canada), Baden-Württemberg (Germany), and Washington State (USA) support integrated land use and transportation decisions. Docoral Thesis, HafenCity University Hamburg.

Heinen, D. (2022): Growth management for low-carbon development patterns – leverages in state planning enabling legislation. In: Urban Research and Practice 15, 1, 71–93. https://doi.org/10.1080/17535069.2020.1722736

Hersperger, A.M.; Grădinaru, S.R.; Siedentop, S. (2020): Towards a better understanding of land conversion at the urban-rural interface: planning intentions and the effectiveness of growth management. In: Journal of Land Use Science 15, 5, 644–651. https://doi.org/10.1080/1747423X.2020.1765426

Hochstenbach, C.; Musterd, S. (2018): Gentrification and the suburbanization of poverty: changing urban geographies through boom and bust periods. In: Urban Geography 39, 1, 26–53. https://doi.org/10.1080/02723638.2016.1276718

Holleran, M. (2021): Millenial ‘YIMBYs’ and boomer ‘NIMBYs’: Generational views on housing affordability in the United States. In: The Sociological Review 69, 4, 846–861. https://doi.org/10.1177/0038026120916121

Honeck, T. (2018): A touch of post-truth: the roles of narratives in urban policy mobilities. In: Geographica Helvetica 73, 2, 133–145. https://doi.org/10.5194/gh-73-133-2018

Hortas-Rico, M. (2015): Sprawl, Blight, and the Role of Urban Containment Policies: Evidence from US Cities. In: Journal of Regional Science 55, 2, 298–323. https://doi.org/10.1111/jors.12145

Hortas-Rico, M.; Solé-Ollé, A. (2010): Does urban sprawl increase the costs of providing local public services? Evidence from Spanish municipalities. In: Urban Studies 49, 7, 1513–1540. https://doi.org/10.1177/0042098009353620

Howell-Moroney, M. (2007): Studying the effects of the intensity of US State growth management approaches on land development outcomes. In: Urban Studies 44, 11, 2163–2178. https://doi.org/10.1080/00420980701518958

Ibraeva, A.; Homem de Almeida Correia, G.; Silva, C.; Pais Antunes, A. (2020): Transit-oriented development: A review of research achievements and challenges. In: Transportation Research Part A: Policy and Practice 132, 110–130. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tra.2019.10.018

Ingram, G.K.; Carbonell, A.; Hong, Y.-H.; Flint, A. (2009): Smart growth policies. An evaluation of programs and outcomes. Cambridge.

Innes, J.E.; Booher, D.E.; Di Vittorio, S. (2011): Strategies for megaregion governance. Collaborative dialogue, networks, and self-organization. In: Journal of the American Planning Association 77, 1, 55–67. https://doi.org/10.1080/01944363.2011.533640

Jabareen, Y.; Eizenberg, E. (2021): The failure of urban forms under the COVID-19 epidemic: towards a more just urbanism. In: Town Planning Review 92, 1, 57–63. https://doi.org/10.3828/tpr.2020.42

Jun, M.-J. (2004): The effects of Portland’s urban growth boundary on urban development patterns and commuting. In: Urban Studies 41, 7, 1333–1348. https://doi.org/10.1080/0042098042000214824

Kießling, N.; Pütz, M. (2020): Assessing the regional governance capacities of spatial planning: the case of the canton of Zurich. In: Regional Studies, Regional Science 7, 1, 183–205. https://doi.org/10.1080/21681376.2020.1776631

Kim, J.H. (2019): Exploring the determinants of variations in land use policy outcomes: What makes urban containment work? In: Journal of Planning Education and Research. https://doi.org/10.1177/0739456X19865300

Kline, J.D. (2000): Comparing states with and without growth management analysis based on indicators with policy implications comment. In: Land Use Policy 17, 4, 349–355. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0264-8377(00)00034‑X

Kline, J.D.; Thiers, P.; Ozawa, C.P.; Yeakley, J.A.; Gordon, S.N. (2014): How well has land-use planning worked under different governance regimes? A case study in the Portland, OR-Vancouver, WA metropolitan area, USA. In: Landscape and Urban Planning 131, 51–63. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.landurbplan.2014.07.013

Knaap, G.J. (1985): The price effects of urban growth boundaries in Metropolitan Portland, Oregon. In: Land Economics 61, 1, 26–35. https://doi.org/10.2307/3146137

Knaap, G.J., Haccou, H.A. (2007): Introduction: Why explore smart growth from a trans-Atlantic perspective? In: Knaap, G.J.; Haccou, H.A.; Clifton, K.J.; Frece, J.W. (eds.): Incentives, Regulations and Plans: the Role of States and Nation-States in Smart Growth Planning. Cheltenham, 1–13.

Knaap, G.J.; Hopkins, L.D. (2001): The inventory approach to urban growth boundaries. In: Journal of the American Planning Association 67, 3, 314–326. https://doi.org/10.1080/01944360108976238

Korthals Altes, W.K. (2006): Stagnation in housing production: another success in the Dutch ‘planner’s paradise’? In: Environment and Planning B – Urban Analytics and City Science 33, 1, 97–114. https://doi.org/10.1068/b31192

Kühn, M. (2003): Greenbelt and green heart: separating and integrating landscapes in European city regions. In: Landscape and Urban Planning 64, 1‑2, 19–27. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0169-2046(02)00198‑6

Landis, J.D. (2006): Growth management revisited: Efficacy, Price Effects, and Dislacement. In: Journal of the American Planning Association 72, 4, 411–430. https://doi.org/10.1080/01944360608976763

Landis, J.D. (2021): Fifty years of local growth management in America. In: Progress in Planning 145, 100435, 1–22. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.progress.2019.100435

Lee, C.-M. (1999): An intertemporal efficiency test of a greenbelt: assessing the economic impacts of Seoul’s greenbelt. In: Journal of Planning Education and Research 19, 1, 41–52. https://doi.org/10.1177/0739456X9901900104

Levine, J. (2005). Zoned Out: Regulation, Markets, and Choices in Transportation and Metropolitan Land Use. Abingdon.

Lewis, R.; Parker, R. (2021): Exurban growth inside the urban growth boundary? An examination of development in Oregon cities. In: Growth and Change 52, 2, 885–908. https://doi.org/10.1111/grow.12481

Liu, Y.; Nath, N.; Murayama, A.; Manabe, R. (2022): Transit-oriented development with urban sprawl? Four phases of urban growth and policy intervention in Tokyo. In: Land Use Policy 112, 1–18. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.landusepol.2021.105854

MacDonald, S.; Monstadt, J.; Friendly, A. (2021): Rethinking the governance and planning of a new generation of greenbelts. In: Regional Studies 55, 5, 804–817. https://doi.org/10.1080/00343404.2020.1747608

Margerum, R.D.; Brody, S.; Parker, R.; McEwen, G. (2013): Metropolitan smart growth centers: An assessment of incentive policies in four regions. In: Journal of Transport and Land Use 6, 2, 21–32. https://doi.org/10.5198/jtlu.v6i2.257

Mathur, S. (2014): Impact of urban growth boundary on housing and land prices: Evidence from King County, Washington. In: Housing Studies 29, 1, 128–148. https://doi.org/10.1080/02673037.2013.825695

Metro Vancouver (2011): Metro Vancouver 2040 – Shaping our future (updated 2020). Vancouver.

Millward, H. (2006): Urban containment strategies: a case-study appraisal of plans and policies in Japanese, British, and Canadian cities. In: Land Use Policy 23, 4, 473–485. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.landusepol.2005.02.004

Moreno, C.; Allam, Z.; Chabaud, D.; Gall, C.; Pratlong, F. (2021): Introducing the “15-minute city”: sustainability, resilience and place identity in future post-pandemic cities. In: Smart Cities 4, 1, 93–111. https://doi.org/10.3390/smartcities4010006

Næss, P.; Saglie, I.-L.; Richardson, T. (2020): Urban sustainability: is densification sufficient? In: European Planning Studies 28, 1, 146–165. https://doi.org/10.1080/09654313.2019.1604633

Nakai, N. (1988): Urbanization promotion and control in Metropolitan Japan. In: Planning Perspectives 3, 2, 197–216. https://doi.org/10.1080/02665438808725659

Nelson, A.C. (1999): Comparing states with and without growth management: Analysis based on indicators with policy implications. In: Land Use Policy 16, 2, 121–127. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0264-8377(99)00009‑5

Nelson, A.C.; Burby, R.J.; Feser, E.; Dawkins, C.J.; Malizia, E.E.; Quercia, R. (2004): Urban containment and central-city revitalization. In: Journal of the American Planning Association 70, 4, 411–425. https://doi.org/10.1080/01944360408976391

Nelson, A.C.; Pendall, R.; Dawkins, C.J.; Knaap, G.J. (2002): The link between growth management and housing affordability: the academic evidence. Washington DC.

Nelson, A.C.; Peterman, D.R. (2000): Does growth management matter? The effect of growth management on economic performance. In: Journal of Planning Education and Research 19, 3, 277–285. https://doi.org/10.1177/0739456X0001900307

Nelson, A.C.; Sanchez, T.W. (2005): The effectiveness of urban containment regimes in reducing exurban sprawl. In: disP – The Planning Review 41, 160, 42–47. https://doi.org/10.1080/02513625.2005.10556905

Nuissl, H.; Siedentop, S. (2021): Urbanisation and land use change. In: Weith, T.; Barkmann, T.; Gaasch, N.; Rogga, S.; Strauß, C.; Zscheischler, J. (Hrsg.): Sustainable Land Management in a European Context. Cham, 75–99. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-50841-8_5

OECD – Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development (2017): The governance of land use in OECD Countries. Policy analysis and recommendations. Paris.

Ogura, L.M. (2010): Effects of urban growth controls on intercity commuting. In: Urban Studies 47, 10, 2173–2193. https://doi.org/10.1177/0042098009356126

Paulsen, K. (2014): Geography, policy or market? New evidence on the measurement and causes of sprawl (and infill) in US metropolitan regions. In: Urban Studies 51, 12, 2629–2645. https://doi.org/10.1177/0042098013512874

Pendall, R. (1999): Do land-use controls cause sprawl? In: Environment and Planning B – Urban Analytics and City Science 26, 4, 555–571. https://doi.org/10.1068/b260555

Pendall, R. (2000): Local Land Use Regulation and the Chain of Exclusion. In: Journal of the American Planning Association 66, 2, 125–142. https://doi.org/10.1080/01944360008976094

Pendall, R.; Martin, J.; Fulton, W. (2002): Holding the line: urban containment in the United States. Washington DC.

Phillips, J.; Goodstein, E. (2000): Growth management and housing prices: The case of Portland, Oregon. In: Contemporary Economic Policy 18, 3, 334–344. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1465-7287.2000.tb00030.x

Porter, D.R. (1999): Reinventing growth management for the 21st century. In: William & Mary Environmental Law and Policy Review 23, 3, 705–738.

Rodríguez-Pose, A. (2018): The revenge of the places that don’t matter (and what to do about it). In: Cambridge Journal of Regions, Economy and Society 11, 1, 189–209. https://doi.org/10.1093/cjres/rsx024

Rome, A. (2001): The bulldozer in the countryside: Suburban sprawl and the rise of American environmentalism. Cambridge.

Saks, R.E. (2008): Job creation and housing construction: Constraints on metropolitan area employment growth. In: Journal of Urban Economics 64, 1, 178–195. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jue.2007.12.003

Salvati, L.; Morelli, V.G. (2014): Unveiling urban sprawl in the Mediterranean region: Towards a latent urban transformation? In: International Journal of Urban and Regional Research 38, 6, 1935–1953. https://doi.org/10.1111/1468-2427.12135

Schafran, A. (2014): Rethinking mega-regions: sub-regional politics in a fragmented metropolis. In: Regional Studies 48, 4, 587–602. https://doi.org/10.1080/00343404.2013.834043

Schiavina, M.; Melchiorri, M.; Corbane, C.; Freire, S.; Batista e Silva, F. (2022): Built-up areas are expanding faster than population growth: regional patterns and trajectories in Europe. In: Journal of Land Use Science. https://doi.org/10.1080/1747423X.2022.2055184

Schmidt, S. (2008): From pro-growth to slow-growth in suburban New Jersey. In: Journal of Planning Education and Research 27, 3, 306–318. https://doi.org/10.1177/0739456X07309824

Schmidt, S.; Li, W.; Carruthers, J.I.; Siedentop, S. (2021): Planning institutions and urban spatial patterns: Evidence from a cross-national analysis. In: Journal of Planning Education and Research. https://doi.org/10.1177/0739456X211044203

Schmidt, S.; Siedentop, S.; Fina, S. (2018): How effective are regions in determining urban spatial patterns? Evidence from Germany. In: Journal of Urban Affairs 40, 5, 639–656. https://doi.org/10.1080/07352166.2017.1360741

Seto, K.C.; Güneralp, B.; Hutyra, L.R. (2012): Global forecasts of urban expansion to 2030 and direct impacts on biodiversity and carbon pools. In: PNAS Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America 109, 40 16083–16088. https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.1211658109

Siedentop, S.; Fina, S.; Krehl, A. (2016): Greenbelts in Germany’s regional plans. An effective growth management policy? In: Landscape and Urban Planning 145, 71–82. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.landurbplan.2015.09.002

Smas, L.; Schmitt, P. (2021): Positioning regional planning across Europe. In: Regional Studies 55, 5, 778–790. https://doi.org/10.1080/00343404.2020.1782879

Snyder, K.; Bird, L. (1998): Paying the costs of sprawl: using fair-share costing to control sprawl. Washington DC.

Soja, E. (2015): Accentuate the regional. In: International Journal of Urban and Regional Research 39, 2, 372–381. https://doi.org/10.1111/1468-2427.12176

Song, Y. (2005): Smart growth and urban development pattern: A comparative study. In: International Regional Science Review 28, 2, 239–265. https://doi.org/10.1177/0160017604273854

Song, Y.; Knaap, G.-J. (2004): Measuring urban form: is Portland winning the war on sprawl? In: Journal of the American Planning Association 70, 2, 210–225. https://doi.org/10.1080/01944360408976371

Tasan-Kok, T.; Baeten, G. (eds.) (2012): Contradictions of Neoliberal Planning. Dordrecht. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-90-481-8924-3

Taubenböck, H.; Gerten, C.; Rusche, K.; Siedentop, S.; Wurm, M. (2019): Patterns of Eastern European urbanisation in the mirror of Western trends – Convergent, unique or hybrid? In: Environment and Planning B: Urban Analytics and City Science 46, 7, 1206–1225. https://doi.org/10.1177/2399808319846902

Taylor, E.J. (2016): Urban growth boundaries and betterment: Rent-seeking by landowners on Melbourne’s expanding urban fringe. In: Growth and Change 47, 2, 259–275. https://doi.org/10.1111/grow.12110

Tiitu, M.; Naess, P.; Ristimäki, M. (2021): The urban density in two Nordic capitals – comparing the development of Oslo and Helsinki metropolitan regions. In: European Planning Studies 29, 6, 1092–1112. https://doi.org/10.1080/09654313.2020.1817865

van der Valk, A.; Faludi, A. (1997): The green heart and the dynamics of doctrine. In: Netherlands Journal of Housing and the Built Environment 12, 1, 57–75. https://doi.org/10.1007/BF02502623

van Meeteren, M. (2022): A prehistory of the polycentric urban region: excavating Dutch applied geography, 1930-60. In: Regional Studies 56, 1, 7–20. https://doi.org/10.1080/00343404.2020.1800629

Vejre, H.; Primdahl, J.; Brandt, J. (2007): The Copenhagen Finger Plan. Keeping a green space structure by a simple planning metaphor. In: Pedroli, B.; van Doorn, A.; de Blust, G.; Paracchini, M.L.; Wascher, D.; Bunce, F. (eds.): Europe’s living landscapes. Essays exploring our identity in the countryside. Zeist, 310–331. https://doi.org/10.1163/9789004278073_020

Vermeulen, W.; van Ommeren, J. (2009): Does land use planning shape regional economies? A simultaneous analysis of housing supply, internal migration and local employment growth in the Netherlands. In: Journal of Housing Economics 18, 4, 294–310. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jhe.2009.09.002

Waltert, F.; Seidl, I. (2013): Wie das fiskalische System die Zersiedelung fördert: Eine Untersuchung der flächenrelevanten Steuern und Subventionen in der Schweiz. In: Zeitschrift für Umweltpolitik und Umweltrecht 36, 2, 178–196.

Wassmer, R.W. (2006): The influence of local urban containment policies and statewide growth management on the size of United States urban areas. In: Journal of Regional Science 46, 1, 25–65. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.0022-4146.2006.00432.x

Weck, S.; Beißwenger, S. (2014): Coping with Peripheralization: Governance Response in Two German Small Cities. In: European Planning Studies 22, 10, 2156−2171. https://doi.org/10.1080/09654313.2013.819839

Weitz, J. (1999): From quiet revolution to smart growth: State growth management programs, 1960to 1999. In: Journal of Planning Literature 14, 2, 266–337. https://doi.org/10.1177/08854129922092694

Wetzstein, S. (2017): The global urban housing affordability crisis. In: Urban Studies 54, 14, 3159–3177. https://doi.org/10.1177/0042098017711649

Wilson, R.H.; Paterson, R. (2002): State growth management and open space preservation policies. Austin.

Wolff, M.; Haase, D.; Haase, A. (2018): Compact or spread? A quantitative spatial model of urban areas in Europe since 1990. In: Plos One 13, 2, 1–22. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0192326

Woo, M.; Guldmann, J.-M. (2011): Impacts of urban containment policies on the spatial structure of US metropolitan areas. In: Urban Studies 48, 16, 3511-3536. https://doi.org/10.1177/0042098011399594

Woodcock, I.; Dovey, K.; Wollan, S.; Beyerle, A. (2010): Modelling the compact city: capacities and visions for Melbourne. In: Australian Planner 47, 2, 94–104. https://doi.org/10.1080/07293681003767793

Xie, X.; Kang, H.; Behnisch, M.; Baildon, M.; Krüger, T. (2020): To what extent can the green belts prevent urban sprawl? A comparative study of Frankfurt am Main, London and Seoul. In: Sustainability 12, 2, 679. https://doi.org/10.3390/su12020679

Yeung, Y.-M. (1986): Controlling Metropolitan Growth in Eastern Asia. In: Geographical Review 76, 2, 125–137. https://doi.org/10.2307/214619

Yin, M.; Sun, J. (2007): The impacts of state growth management programs on urban sprawl in the 1990s. In: Journal of Urban Affairs 29, 2, 149–179. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-9906.2007.00332.x

Zhou, Y.; Varquez, A.C.G.; Kanda, M. (2019): High-resolution global urban growth projection based on multiple applications of the SLEUTH urban growth model. In: Scientific Data 6, 34, 1–10. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41597-019-0048-z

Zimmermann, K. (2021): Stadtregionales Flächenmanagement und Regional Govenance. In: Henn, S.; Zimmermann, T.; Brauschweig, B. (Hrsg.): Stadtregionales Flächenmanagement. Berlin, 1–19. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-662-63295-6_22-1

Zovanyi, G. (2004): Urban growth management and ecological sustainability: Confronting the “Smart Growth” fallacy. In: Bengston, D.N. (ed.): Policies for managing urban growth and landscape change: A key to conservation in the 21st century. = USDA General Technical Report NC-265. St. Paul, 35–44.